Assignment five: Illustration and narrative

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This final assignment shows a summation of all elements of The Art of Photography. Using knowledge and skills developed in previous units alongside this unit’s learning on illustration and narrative, I have created an illustrated insert for a magazine. Having had the opportunity to photograph several weddings for friends and family this year, I thought it fitting to use a selection of these images for my assignment. My main aim when photographing these weddings was to capture as much as possible of the emotional journey travelled by those involved.

Don McCullin in his article, ‘The Art of Seeing’ states that ‘emotional awareness is the most important aspect of photography’. He believes that being emotionally committed to where you are and what you are doing far outweighs the technical side of photography; his images taken in war zones and refugee camps show his firm belief in this ideology as the emotions of the moments spill out onto the page. Focusing on love rather than war, I considered McCullin’s ideals in my own work.

In his book, ‘Wedding Photography from the Heart’, Joe Buissink emphasises ‘learning to see’ as training oneself to anticipate the moments that matter and developing trust with the client. He considers, in wedding photography the right moments to be much more important than technically perfect photos along with an ability to create images which , even decades later will capture the joy of the day.

For the purpose of this assignment, I decided to focus solely on the lead up to wedding. I feel that this is an element which is rarely covered in magazines, yet it is a vital part of the day, wrought with emotion and so many moments which may otherwise be forgotten.

Using a series of clocks to denote the concept of time, I have shown the build up of emotion from a slight onset of wedding day jitters during her make over, to the final call, wrought with nerves, tears and anticipation. In order to maintain a coherent set, I have used the same background and graphics throughout, darkening slightly for the front and back cover. Colours remain simple throughout the inner pages, using white through to flesh tones and blondes brightened with touches of blue to each page.

Outer covers: In order to set the outer cover apart, I have used monochrome processing to these images which unlike the inner pages, are both taken outdoors. On the front cover, the curve of the clock and inferred clockwise movement of the hands leads the eye from the title, ‘TIME’ towards the couple. The title word, ‘TIME’ is reflected in the back page to denote closure to the set and show that the time the bride has been waiting for has finally arrived; a narrow path, created alongside the shadow, leads from the word ‘TIME’ towards the bride.

01 Time for marriage: This is the only image which includes the groom as it was actually taken after the ceremony; the intent is to show the peaceful contentment hoped for as a couple settle into a lifelong marriage after the madness of the wedding. I feel that this is a timeless image, reminiscent of an older couple sitting side by side many years after this special day.

02 Pampered: The leading lines in this image; the makeup artist’s gaze, her arm and the makeup brush all lead towards the main focus, the bride’s face. The hint of pre-wedding nerves creeping into the bride’s face makes this an ideal image to begin the set.

03 Accessories: This collection of images work together to show further elements to the bride’s make over. Shown as a set, a smooth curve is created, leading from the downward sweep of the dress, through the two violet flowers and on to the upward curve of the shoes.

04 A Moment: As mother of the bride and maid of honour set to work, Rebecca takes a quiet moment to reflect. The splashes of blue modernise an otherwise timeless image.

05 Hired Help: The lines implied by the ladies’ gaze lead towards their work, the preparation of the dress.

06 Mi’ Lady: Reminiscent of a lady in waiting, the maid of honour helps the bride into her dress.

07 Curves: A final check that everything is in place, I was drawn to the curves in the bridesmaid’s hair. Using a shallow depth of field, I ensured that this was the main focus of the image.

08 Nerves: Positioning themselves for a pre-ceremony shoot, the girls take a moment gather themselves. I chose this moment to shoot before they were ready in order to capture the true feeling of the moment.  This image speaks volumes and for me, surpasses any eyes-to-camera posed shot. The feelings are perfectly captured as bridesmaids stand in quiet reflection while the bride exhales through pursed lips to attempt to still the butterflies in her stomach. Firmly placed between arrangements and the commencement of the day; just for a second, time stands still.

09 Reflect: So close to the final call, Rebecca sits to calm her nerves. I cannot take full credit for this image; as she sat, her mother leaned towards me and whispered, ‘It’s these moments that fill me up, when she’s just sitting quietly.’ I shot from behind for several reasons; the first was that I wanted to recreate exactly what her mother had seen, the second because I didn’t want to move and disturb the moment. I’m pleased that I didn’t as I feel that the rear view adds an air of mystery befitting the moment.

10 Curtain Call: Rebecca stands in position as her father is called to escort her to the ceremony. Gaze firmly on her posy, she remains calm and collected.

11 Dad: Emotions spill over as father of the bride enters the room. The mirrored gestures reflect the unbreakable connection between father and daughter.

12 Time: As the clock strikes twelve, Rebecca crosses the bridge into her new life. Several real and implied lines lead towards both the subject and the end of the bridge.

My passion for photography and a love of working with people combine to make wedding photography a thoroughly enjoyable experience, albeit one which comes with many pressures; differing locations, changeable lighting conditions with the desire to represent this momentous occasion with outstanding images have set me on a steep learning curve this year and one I aim to continue to climb. With each wedding, I have become more skilled at listening to the ceremony for that perfect moment when the couple will be looking lovingly into each others’ eyes, watching and waiting for those stolen glances as they begin to relax together, capturing the beauty of a radiant bride, flushed with excitement. Far from the emotive sadness of a war zone, a wedding is a rollercoaster of mixed emotions, mainly positive and a pure pleasure to capture in images they’ll revisit for the rest of their lives. 

All images from this assignment can be seen in the corresponding Flickr album.

Wedding photography

Carey Nash

Having previously struggled to find critical articles on wedding photography, I turned to one of the social media photography groups I visit frequently, Facebook Wedding Photographers, run by working photographers, Chris Fawkes and Skip Cohen, founder of Skip Cohen University and author of several books. Through these groups, I have come to the conclusion that there’s no genre more precious than the wedding photographers; at worst, many of them are competitive, rude and obnoxious but I find it fascinating reading their critique of one another’s images; between hissy fits, they actually make some pretty good points. Chris and Skip have recently developed a new feature whereby respected members of the group are interviewed, this week we have taken a peek into the life and work of Carey Nash: http://careynash.com/

Originally a travel photographer, Carey moved into wedding photography around ten years ago in order to provide stability for his family; however these images show how he often manages to incorporate travel photography into his work.

Carey does stress though that in this line of work, his artistic desires don’t always fit in with customer requirements but this is something he has come to terms with; when the job is done, he can always ‘book a flight back to Africa and find [his] artistic voice there’.

What really struck me while reading this interview was his response to the question: What was the single greatest thing that helped you in your education/evolution as a wedding photographer? Carey’s answer is that it is his perspective as a family man; as his own children grow, he feels more personally involved in the proceedings, to the point where he sometimes feels quite emotional. He goes on to say:

‘Knowing and feeling this allows me to look and shoot for the connections and interactions I see all day between loved ones, not just the bride and groom. This evolution has been the best gift I can have personally when approaching a wedding. I can do the "epic" shots on my own time but I don't want to miss the small special moments that happen all day.’

Browsing Skip Cohen’s titles, I noticed that he had written several books in collaboration with celebrity wedding photographers such as Joe Buissink and Bambi Cantrell. I continued my research to both photographers.

Joe Buissink

Buissink has photographed weddings all over the world, including those of Christina Aguilera, Jennifer Lopez and Hilary Swank; his work featuring in publications such as People Magazine and others. Although photographing weddings, his style has been described as fine art as he redefines what is traditionally known as wedding photography. Buissink’s more traditional images show a distinct style, using creative angles and making use of the given environment such as the spiral staircase and image of women bathing.  

He also shows great talent for capturing moments; tearful bridesmaids, a giggling couple and male guests at the bar checking out a lady’s bottom, a simple shot taken of guests relaxing becomes a work of art. His philosophy that "there’s no such thing as a perfect image–only a perfect moment" shines through in these images.

In his book, ‘Wedding Photography from the Heart’, Buissink emphasises ‘learning to see’ as training oneself to anticipate the moments that matter and developing trust with the client. He considers, in wedding photography the right moments to be much more important than technically perfect photos along with an ability to create images which , even decades later will capture the joy of the day. 

Bambi Cantrelle

Bambi Cantrell has been photographing in the San Francisco Bay Area for over 25 years. Although known for her passion for capturing the decisive moment, her ‘set up’ images show enormous talent and creativity; Bambi was presented with the Golden Eye award in July 2008. A highly regarded photographer and author of several books on the art of photography, Bambi claims her secret to success is simple;

 “I just love people, and believe truly great photographs are a reflection of who the client is, not who I want them to be.”

The selection of images below shows inspiring examples of Bambi’s skill for capturing moments in her photography:

Jason Bell

Jason Bell is an English portrait and fashionphotographer who shares his time between London and New York, working for Vanity Fair, Vogue, Time and other magazines. Many of his photographs, including his set entitled, ‘An Englishman in New York’ are in the National Portrait Gallery. Having fallen for New York through a picture in his childhood home, Bell eventually moved there and loved the new found freedom he discovered there. A chance conversation lead him to the decision to discover through photography, why so many others had made the same move. Photographing celebrities such as Kate Winslet and Sting as well as everyday people, a rat catcher, a pilot, Bell also considered the question, why had he himself made that move. 

Like London, New York is a well photographed city so creating something new proved quite a challenge; Bell aimed to avoid clichés by thinking what he had noticed when first moving to New York. While photographing many of his subjects at work, he opted away from the obvious; historian Simon Schama, rather than being photographed at the university, was taken to the subway whereas author Vicky Ward sunbathed unnoticed by city crowds showing the unshockable nature of the New Yorker.

‘What do I remember noticing first when I came here? Seeing an expensively dressed woman in her 80s on the Upper East Side bending down to pick up dog shit with a perfectly manicured hand.’ Jason Bell

On 23 October 2013, Bell took the official christening photographs of Prince George. Very different from his New York set, these images could have been taken by any technically aware photographer. 

The Guardian newspaper describes the image of the core family as ‘pretty perfect as a document’ and goes on to discuss the technical qualities of the image. This image, to me looks like every image ever taken of the royal family; this is work. Bell may have enjoyed spending time with the family but I doubt that he got the same satisfaction taking this shot as he did creating his ‘Englishman in New York’ collection.  

Some shots are more natural in appearance, the one of the family framed by the window hints at a more normal, everyday world which they must inhabit sometimes; the slightly desaturated colours enhance the traditional feel of the image. Bell has also captured Kate’s love for her baby as she looks at him cradled in her arms. Beautiful as they are, it is clear that creativity is restricted and Bell’s voice is clearly muffled.

One of Bell's favourite shots:

'I think of Stephen as very learned, so I wanted a bit of gravitas. When he looked through the columns I remember saying, 'That looks really nice, now can you look a bit more nervous?' – which he did straightaway. I knew it was a good picture. It was a happy accident, but as you get better you have more happy accidents. The skill lies in tipping the odds in your favour.' Jason Bell

Don McCullin

Don McCullin grew up on a London council estate and at age five, was evacuated to Somerset. Seperated from his sister, who was placed with a much wealthier family, McCullin developed issues about class and poverty; his affinity to persecuted peoples developed later through being beaten at a later placement. McCullin left Art College to support his family aged fourteen, following the death of his father. Severely dyslexic and having not done well in school, McCullin was a self confessed tear-away until a gang acquaintance was involved in the murder of a police man. McCullin, having photographs of the gang was immediately in demand with the press; this was the beginning of a lifelong career in photography.

McCullin’s photography is described as exceptionally powerful and technically sound. He uses relatively simple equipment, never a flash and rarely has a need for cropping or manipulation; he is instinctively a great photographer. He always does his own printing and mainly in black and white with heightened contrast to enhance impact, to make those images really stay with the viewer as they do with him. 

McCullin worked intensively as a war photographer, to the detriment of his first marriage until the early eighties when issues over opposing ethos lead to his dismissal.

Turning to work such as advertising to pay for travel, McCullin explored parts of India and Africa, writing books such as ‘Don McCullin in Africa’. Whilst in England, McCullin spent time photographing homeless people for a story about derelicts, those pushed aside by society. Cold and with a sense of discomfort, McCullin describes the excitement of potentially encountering an amazing scene; as with his war photography, he was looking for the truth and often found it in the gaze of his subject looking directly at him. He once said that as he worked he ‘looked into people's eyes and they would look back and there would be something like a meeting of guilt’. It is this that gives depth and compassion to his images. 

McCullin believes that seeing, really seeing has nothing to do with photography; photography is just about showing the truth of that. The most important thing in his eyes is your emotional approach and the emotional commitment to where you are and what you are doing; to him, the technical side is secondary.

Often asked, ‘Do you hide behind the camera?’ McCullin considers this a ridiculous question; hiding behind the camera would be tantamount to hiding your own emotions. McCullin’s ethos is to be there, feel it, live it, look at what’s in front of you; I am inspired by McCullin’s work but I what truly inspires me is the ethos of committing emotionally  to a situation, in a bid to capture so much more than visual impact.

Irving Penn

Penn was first known as a fashion photographer and worked in this field for several years with Vogue magazine. Penn constructed bizarrely angled backdrops to create an austere, enclosed space; the sense of physical confinement bringing out interesting reactions in his subjects. Penn recalled in his 1991 book "Passage"; ‘This confinement, surprisingly, seemed to comfort people, soothing them. The walls were a surface to lean on or push against.’ The set up did bring a sense of drama to the portraits, driving the viewer's focus onto the person and their expression; in many photos, the subjects appeared wedged into the corner. 

Penn was a master of studio lighting; however often opted for natural light. For working on location, Penn created a portable studio with a skylight, set to face north with impressive results. 

As well as people, Penn also photographed still life, using the same composed style with carefully considered arrangements.

Yousuf Karsh

Yousuf Karsh, who shot to fame following his portrait of Winston Churchill; The Roaring Lion, has in his portfolio, images of many great heroes. Karsh’s images show great variety in posture and lighting while capturing brilliantly the individual character of the subject; as stated in the L.A. Times, ‘Each picture captures not only an image but a personality’. The body language, direction of gaze  and hand gestures work together with lighting and effects to hint at the type of person being portrayed.

His portrait below of Albert Einstein is lit from slightly behind so that the light skims across his face, highlighting the deep wrinkles which show great wisdom and character; true to type, Karsh has captured the pensive look on the academic’s face. French author, François Mauriac’s silhouette is given an aristocratic feel using edge lighting to highlight only the edges of his noble features. Karsh’s portrait of playwright, Bernard Shaw is lit from a high angle creating strong highlights and shadows in his face and clothing; Karsh has perfectly captured Shaw’s quizzical demeanour.

Karsh’s became well known for his hero worshiping ethos and as a result, his subjects knew that going in front of his lens would bring them iconic status. He was trusted by all to bring out the best in his clients, boosting their public persona:
"There is a brief moment," he believed, "when all there is in a man's mind and soul and spirit may be reflected through his eyes, his hands, his attitude. This is the moment to record. This is the elusive 'moment of truth.”
It has been written that Karsh’s motivation stemmed from a belief in the dignity, goodness and genius of human beings.
Karsh’s work has been in a variety of mass media, including postage stamps and currency and is recognised in both European and North American culture.  

Jay Maisel

One of my favourite photographers for his use of colour is Jay Maisel; Although Maisel has photographed many celebrities, I am more drawn to his distinct use of colour and light. Maisel works with very simple but definite blocks of colour and light. His work almost looks as if it has jumped out of a rule book on use of colour as it is so simple in appearance, as are the titles to go with them. Although many of Maisel’s prints are true to his block work style, he has several images which work more with the qualities of light than with bold, bright colours. When looking at images such as ‘Restaurant Roof’, I felt like I was viewing the work of a different photographer as this particular image has an almost ‘Van Gogh’ like quality to it. On closer inspection however, I noticed that although Maisel was in this case working with light rather than colour, he had still captured the subject in definite blocks of the varying forms of light.

On reading further into Maisel’s work, I discovered that his preferred method is to forget about complicated lighting set ups and mainly shoots with one lens, looking for interesting shapes, colours and light around the city. I feel that when learning the art of photography, this is a valuable lesson to learn and a great way to exercise artistic flair.

Before discovering Maisel, I had worried that in order to develop an artistic voice I would have to quash parts of who I am in order to pursue a particular type of photography. I now understand that this does not necessarily mean a choice between vibrant or muted colours or between landscapes and close ups but it is about the individual style in which these elements are used.

Ernst Haas

Vienna born Ernst Haas wasn’t professionally trained but quickly became one of the most celebrated and influential photographers in America in the 1950s.  His first essay, "Homecoming Prisoners of War," shot in Vienna led to an invitation to join Magnum as a result of the feelings and empathy evoke by the images. Dissatisfied with monochrome, Haas moved quickly into colour photography, creating essays on New York, Paris and Venice; his New York essay got him a 24 page spread in Life magazine.

Haas was interested in the super-reality of dreams and this is clear in all three essays; many of his images look more like paintings than photographs as a result of his use of colour. Although distinctive in style, each set has an individual feel corresponding to the city it represents.

Haas uses bold, colours with strong shadows in his New York essay, many images taken at night to show the bustling nature of a city that never sleeps.

Much softer contrast and dreamy pinkish tones reflect the romantic nature of a weekend in Paris.

Similarly romantic, Haas’ Venice essay introduces the blues associated with the city’s waterways; even the image of the arches shown below has the feel and rhythm of water with its colour and repeated pattern.

Having developed a firm hold on colour, Haas turned his attention to the use of slow shutter speeds to capture movement. In his essay on bullfighting, he managed to capture the graceful element of what is otherwise a brutal sport. Haas described this as ‘the beauty of a fourth dimension, which lies much more between moments than within a moment.’

William Eggleston

‘Genius in colour’, William Eggleston has a very distinctive style combining ordinary, everyday subjects with strong colours, giving a rather surreal result. Influenced by the endless amateur snaps being developed in an industrial photo lab, Eggleston draws the viewer in with images which at first appear to be almost snapshots but something in the lines, the angles and especially the colours gives these images an edge. Whether photographing a bike or an elderly lady, Eggleston’s slightly surreal images evoke a tension akin to that of a Hammer horror film.

Eggleston first started working with colour film in 1965 after almost a decade of using monochrome. The photographer thrived at the introduction of this medium as his selective use of colours complement the awkward angles already used to create that Eggleston tension; this is an artist with a clearly defined voice. John Szarkowski, of New York’s Museum of Modern Art is quoted as saying that Eggleston had ‘learned to see in colour’.

Eggleston wasn’t always so celebrated; his exhibition, entitled 'Color Photographs' appeared at the Museum of Modern Art in 1976 and was cited as being the most hated exhibition of the year. One critic suggested that the photographs 'would be unacceptable if submitted by one of my basic photography students'. Hilton Kramer's review in The New York Times finished his critique by saying: 'The truth is, these pictures belong to the world of snapshot chic.’

Looking deeper into Eggleston’s images, it is clear that although, true to snapshot style, the main focus is in the centre; the edges of these images contain details of people and objects which give additional meaning.

William Eggleston was also criticized for using expensive dye-transfer technique for prints of such everyday objects. Eggleston uses this process as it enables him to control the colours individually, exaggerating them in order to achieve desired results.

John Davies

“I am not so much interested in entertaining an audience or providing vehicles for escape but in delivering a highly crafted detailed image conveying a sense of reality. A reality that shares a recognition of aspects of urban living. But importantly, making images of a landscape that attempts to question our acceptance and perception of the inevitable consequences of living in a post imperialist society and within a post industrial landscape".  John Davies - November 2011.

Born in County Durham, Davies’ images ooze Northern grit; self processed and mainly in black and white, they show an atmospheric study of Britain’s industrial landscape.

A lover of  images in which industry and nature come together, I am drawn to Davies’ shot, ‘Agecroft Power Station, Salford’, taken in 1983. The impact is twofold; however thoughts about the strange placement of a football pitch in the shadow of the power station are overshadowed by the startling vastness of the cooling towers.

 

 Most of Davies’ work seems to create a narrative about the transformation of British industry. The monochrome finish draws attention to the elements of design in his images; as shown below, these images are a mass of rhythm, pattern, curve and reflection, all working together to bare the realities of urban living.

 Soup Kitchen/Arms Houses

 Stockport Viaduct

Runcorn Bridges

http://www.johndavies.uk.com/abiog.htm

Edward Burtynsky

Edward Burtynsky is known for his large-format photographs of industrial landscapes and his work can be seen in museums all over the world. He often positions himself at high-vantage points over the landscape using elevated platforms and helicopters.

Burtynsky’s ‘Shipbreaking’ series is part of a decade long project entitled ‘Oil’ and documents the industry of dismantling and recycling ships in Bangladesh. India based Tasveer Journal describes the set as one of Burtynsky’s most poignant and increasingly significant in light of today’s environmental insecurity. The series not only shows where these enormous oil tankers come to die but also highlights the dangerous conditions in which the dismantlers work.

Using a desaturated colour palette, Burtynsky succeeds in creating images which are both beautiful and emotive. Many of the images have the appearance of a giant graveyard, evoking feelings of the end of the world.

These images represent the kind of sentiment I am aiming to represent with my ‘Elements of Design’ assignment, taken at a small shipyard on the banks of the Humber Estuary.

 

 

"[we] come from nature.…There is an importance to [having] a certain reverence for what nature is because we are connected to it... If we destroy nature, we destroy ourselves." – Edward Burtynsky

Assignment five: response to feedback

So, it seems my even numbered assignments are good, my odd numbers a bit pants... I’m starting to feel like a Star Trek movie!

Oh, where to begin... it was a massive decision whether or not to use this wedding for my project and I’m not sure I got it right. It was a family wedding so I was already combining business with pleasure but to add study to the mix was probably a step too far. My thinking was that, as I was already putting a concerted effort into getting the best images possible and it definitely fitting with the theme of a narrative, I couldn’t go wrong.

With the wedding done and the bride and groom happy with their album, I set about the job of reducing hundreds of wedding photos into a set of twelve or less for my assignment – but how, what element of the day would I use, an overview of the whole day, a specific part of the day, a theme... and why would my niece’s wedding be in a magazine anyway? This last question was the easiest to answer; on browsing a few wedding magazines, I discovered that they are full of stories and pictures of everyday couple’s weddings and for many different reasons. Some have had a quirky style of wedding so feel they’d like to show it off, others got married in beautiful surroundings or maybe have an interesting story fitting around the venue or how they met.

The original concept I produced needed improvement. Looking through the different layouts gave me several ideas on how to make my set feel more cohesive. 

The Knot magazine and Utah Valley Bride use a consistent colour scheme throughout, reflecting colours from the images into the background and text. In Cosmo Bride, it’s all about the editing, giving a vintage style to reflect the theme of the wedding while images in the article, ‘Rustic Romance’ have lots of soft focus fitting to the dreamy, romantic theme. I learned from this that I needed to keep a consistent background style as well as using images which work together.

While my tutor feels that my submission should show the more traditional, classic wedding photographs, I feel that this would stray too far from what I am trying to develop as my personal voice. Granted, the wedding album was full of group shots, confetti shots with the expected close ups of the rings, etc but that was for the couple; this assignment, I feel should show the shots which are true to my developing voice. With this in mind, I have decided to focus purely on the lead up to the wedding. I feel that this is an element which is rarely covered in magazines, yet it is a vital part of the day, wrought with emotion and so many moments which may otherwise be forgotten after the events of such an important day.

I also need to address the fact that my tutor had stressed that I was maybe too emotionally involved in the wedding I used for this assignment with it being a family wedding. As part of my assignment, I had discussed the emotional side of the day for me as I felt that being ‘in the moment’ enabled me to create more moving images. While I can see his point that I maybe went a touch overboard, the article he signposted made me feel quite disillusioned as the author appeared to have such bitter feelings towards some of the weddings he photographed:

<http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/aug/03/what-really-thinking-wedding-photographer>

“I see marriages doomed to fail even before the confetti falls, fathers shaking their heads in disappointment, grooms with a roving eye and bridesmaids who know too much.”

Surely, if these are the things a photographer is noticing, how can he possibly portray the love, hope and commitment which the customer is expecting to see in the forthcoming images? I’m sure his photographs are attractive and technically perfect but will they, in a small way, show the bitterness he feels? Unsurprisingly, this photographer has chosen to remain anonymous.

This article also bothered me as my one worry as I move towards a career in photography is that I lose the passion I currently feel. Granted, I often photograph things purely because they look nice but most of the time, it is because something has made me feel a certain way and I want my images to portray those feelings. I would hope that as my technical skills develop, my ability to do so will increase but if, like the aforementioned photographer, I lose that joy, that passion for showing how things have made me feel, then all the learning is wasted as I will be left with flat, meaningless images. Any artist, be it a painter, a musician, would advise that the only reason to take on a career in art should be for the love of that art form. This article, to me shows an artist who has lost that love.

To restore my faith in the true value of wedding photography, I have included a small selection of my favourite emotive images from Facebook Wedding Photographers, a group I regularly visit for inspiration: